Wednesday, December 25, 2019

Why Should People Commit Crime And Labeling Theory From A...

Sociologists have done thousands of research studies on deviance; an action or behavior that is out of the norm. However, the question that they are most intrigued with is; what causes a person to commit a deviant act? There are two theories that are in debate, anomie-strain theory, and labeling theory. In this essay, I am going to compare and contrast the two theories and explain how tattooing has become a stigma in today s society. I am going to discuss three similarity views; first they share ties with social strain in deviance, by the way, society is structured. Second, they both deal with crime among minority group as well as crime rates in the United States. Third, both anomie-strain and labeling theory focus on the deviant behavior regarding the individual social and cultural status and how society response to these types of deviant behaviors. I am going to explain Robert K. Merton’s theory on why people commit crime and labeling theory from a sociological perspective, and how people respond to the actions that people make. Even though the two theories are similar they play different roles in society in dealing with deviance behavior. Anomie strain theory can be described as the failure to achieve certain goals, which can lead an individual to commit deviant acts. Emilie Durkheim, a sociologist defines anomie as lack of normal ethical or social standards which leads relationships with people to become frayed. Sociologist Merton applied Emilie Durkheim theory in theShow MoreRelatedThe Sociological Perspective On Medical Conditions1687 Words   |  7 Pagesbiomedical perspective is used to explain various medical conditions. This can include, but is not limited to using an individual’s body and pathogens to explain poor health. On a different note, the sociological perspective takes on a different approach to explain medical conditions. The sociological perspective focuses on the external influences, rather than then internal influences, such as the social environment, institutions, and relationsh ips to assess and explain illness. The sociological perspectiveRead MoreConflict and Labeling Theory Essay1337 Words   |  6 PagesConflict and Labeling Theory Labeling theory is concerned less with that causes the onset of an initial delinquent act and more with the effect that official handling by police, courts, and correctional agencies has on the future of youths who fall into the court system. Labeling theory states that youths violate the law for a number of reasons; these reasons are poor family relationships, neighborhood conflict, peer pressure, psychological and biological abnormality and delinquent learning experiencesRead MoreWhy People Commit The Crime Essay1538 Words   |  7 PagesCriminological theory is the explanation of criminal behavior, as well as the behavior of juveniles, attorneys, prosecutors, judges, correctional personnel, victims, and other actors in the criminal justice process. Criminological theory is important because most of what is done in criminal justice is based on criminological theory, whether we or the people who propose and implement policies based on the theory know it or not. In criminology, exa mining why people commit the crime is very importantRead MoreTheoretical Perspectives of Race and Ethnicity757 Words   |  4 PagesTheoretical Perspectives of Race and Ethnicity Rebecca Spain ETH/125 April 4th, 2010 Melissa Terrell The three sociological theoretical perspectives of race and ethnicity are the functionalist, conflict, and labeling perspectives. The functionalist perspective is the perspective that shows how parts of society work in a structured manner to keep the survival of a society. The belief is that if a certain part does not contribute to society’s survival in an effective manner that it willRead MoreEssay about SOC 1011212 Words   |  5 Pages SOC101-Intro to Sociology March 2013 1. Part A. Describe the sociological concept of deviance. Briefly explain each of the approaches to explaining deviance (functionalist perspective, interactionist perspective, conflict perspective), telling which is most convincing to you and why. 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Each economic class has its own crime rates and types of crime. It is a mistake to think of crime as a lower class problem. Crime is a problem for all people. The lower classes commit crime for survival while the upper class commits crime to supplement capital and maintain control. Research also highlight that middle class crime is the most popularRead MoreEssay on Theories of Crime and Criminal Activity1488 Words   |  6 PagesTheories of Crime and Criminal Activity Every theory of crime has at least 2-3 meta-theoretical levels above it. The fundamental issues are usually addressed at the approach level, and are often called the assumptions, or starting points, of a theory, although the term assumptions more strictly refers to the background or domain boundaries one can draw generalizations about. Above the approach level is the Perspective level, the largest unit of agreement within a scientific community, andRead MoreDeviance Is A Violation Of Social Norms1637 Words   |  7 PagesImagine someone rich or powerful committing crimes without the fear of serving consequences. The crime may include murder, robbery, or stealing. Deviance is a label for an action or behavior that violates social norms. Social norms are rules or expectations which usually guide members of society. Deviance is nonconformity to these norms. Social norms can vary from culture to culture and is defined in numerous ways. Many researchers believe that deviance is a violat ion of social norms. Some believeRead MoreFunctionalist View on Crime1262 Words   |  5 PagesSociologists who study Crime and Deviance examine cultural norms, how they will or might change over time and how they are enforced. Deviance and social norms vary greatly among different societies, communities and times. Crime is considered an activity which breaks the immediate laws of the society an individual is a part of. The nature that determines whether and act is one of crime or deviance is clearly outlined by a set of formal laws which individuals are expected to follow. Deviance on the

Monday, December 16, 2019

Essay about The Joy Luck Club - 1355 Words

The Joy Luck Club 1. From the film The Joy Luck Club, Chinese girls were supposed to act obedient and respectful to their parents and elders. This included the girls having to abide by each and every Chinese tradition that their parents instilled in them. Girls were also expected to be quiet and considerate to their parents and elders. They were only supposed to speak when spoken to at all times. Acting out against anything their parents enforced upon them was completely unacceptable. 2. Much like to their parents and elders, Chinese girls were supposed to be quiet and obedient to their husbands and mothers-in-law. Girls were supposed to respect, and not openly question the decisions that were made in the household. These†¦show more content†¦This eventually led to her committing suicide in an attempt to give her daughter the strength that she lacked. Secondly, these women, especially the latter wives and the concubines, lose a lack of identity. For example, when these women marry, they are referred to as which wife they are. Even the wives refer to each other as first wife, second wife, etc. 5. As with Chinese women, slave women in the U.S. experienced complete losses of power over their lives. Slaves were forced to live their lives to the orders of their masters just as these Chinese wives were forced to live their lives to the orders of their husbands and higher wives. By given no chance to survive by themselves and maintain an identity, these women suffered from great losses of self-esteem and hope. As far as non-slave women in the U.S. are concerned, their lives are comparable to those lives of Chinese women, as well. Non-slave women in the times of slavery and Chinese women both experienced great inequities and discriminations. Women in both situations were given very few rights and chances to survive by themselves. Many of these women chose to give up their freedom and power for the protection and secure lifestyle that a man could provide, despite how damaging it may be to their identity and self-esteem. 6. Sex-role expectations were a very important issue in the relationship between An-Mei and her daughter. Throughout the mothers life, she was expected toShow MoreRelatedSummary Of The Joy Luck Club 853 Words   |  4 PagesExam Project Process Check #1 Book: The Joy Luck Club Author: Amy Tan By: Bala Sundaram Themes: A) The Joy luck Club presents a couple of themes but one of which, relates to an issue that is affecting many immigrant families who bring up their kids in foreign countries. In forwards, the difficulty in speaking and translating another language.The mothers and daughters in the book have difficulty in communicating their ideas and feelings with one another.The problems associated with communicatingRead MoreJoy Luck Club Analysis981 Words   |  4 Pagesas well.† (Tan 213). The Joy Luck club is a book containing sixteen stories told by four mother-daughter pairs, as well as four anecdotes about no particular character. The mothers are all Chinese Immigrants. Each mothers story details their experiences in China, while the daughters talk about life in America. The exception to this is with the Woo family, where the mother, Suyuan, has passed away, and the daughter, June, tells her stories for her. In ‘The Joy Luck Club’, Amy Tan uses the storiesRead MoreJoy Luck Club Essay1722 Words   |  7 PagesIn the novel, Joy Luck Club, we see Waverly Jong and June Woo’s competitiveness when Waverly becomes a child chess prodigy and June struggles to master the piano. This rivalry reflects how success and worth are depicted in this novel. A mother’s success would be encouraging or coercing their child to master a particular hobby and to improve constantly. A daughter’s worth would be determined by the daughter’s talents, and whether or not the daughter brings a good reputation for the family. We canRead MoreThe Joy Luck Club Characterization1301 Words   |  6 Pages Characterization is a widely-used literary tool in Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club. Specifically, each mother and daughter is a round character that undergoes change throughout the novel. Characterization is important in the novel because it directly supports the central theme of the mother-daughter relationship, which was relevant in Tan’s life. T an grew up with an immigrant mother, and Tan expresses the difficulties in communication and culture in the stories in her book. All mothers in the book areRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Joy Luck Club 937 Words   |  4 Pagesup together. Towards the end of the novel, a gathered opinion can be made on the three characters true to all the viewpoints. The Joy Luck Club is a movie, based off a novel written by Amy Tan, displaying the struggles of a group of Chinese women and their daughters. The women grew like a family when they moved from China to San Francisco. The woman in the joy luck club all experienced rape, domestic violence or being abandoned by their family early in adulthood. Christina, Ida and Suyuan all liveRead MoreThe Joy Luck Club Is The Power Of Storytelling1054 Words   |  5 PagesA recurring theme in The Joy Luck Club is the power of storytelling. Throughout the book, stories are used as a way to socialize, teach lessons and warn about dangers. The article à ¢â‚¬Å"The Psychological Power of Storytelling† by Pamela B. Rutledge explains how stories are a form of communication. Rutledge says, â€Å"Stories have always been a primal form of communication.† From cavemen drawing pictures of stories on walls, to bedtime stories being read to children, sharing experiences through storiesRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Joy Luck Club 1700 Words   |  7 PagesChurchill English 2 Honors, Period 0 6 September 2015 Reconciliation Swan feathers. Hopes and dreams. Broken relationships and healing. Though these concepts might initially appear incongruous, they are all depicted in the book The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan and The Joy Luck Club film directed by Wayne Wang. Both modes of interpretation show how the mothers help their daughters solve their problems by explaining the formers’ pasts. However, while the book leaves each of the daughters’ stories open endedRead MoreThe Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan841 Words   |  3 PagesIn the Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan, tells stories of four Chinese mothers and four Chinese-American daughters and their mother-daughter relationship. The four mothers met in a San Francisco church in 1949. Suyuan Woo, founder of the Joy Luck Club, convinced the other mothers An-Mei Hsu, Lindo Jong, and Yingying St. Clair to join the club. The club would meet every week at one of the mother’s house where they eat food, play mahjong, and brag about their daughters. The Chinese -American daughters tellRead MoreThe Joy Luck Club : Breaking Barriers1075 Words   |  5 PagesGrace Pating Mr. Devine English 203H 8 September 2015 The Joy Luck Club: Breaking Barriers When people struggle to communicate with one another or disagree, the usual response is to ask questions and make an effort to fix the issue. Unfortunately, owning up to responsibility can be much more difficult when the argument is with a close friend or family member. Coming from two time periods, this is a prevalent issue for the women of the Woo family, especially since both individuals are intolerablyRead MoreThe Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan963 Words   |  4 PagesThe novel The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan shows the past and present experiences of several women including An-mei Hsu, the mother of Rose Hsu Jordan. Beginning at a young age, An-mei has to endure many situations. Her grandmother tells her that her mother is a ghost but she comes back to take care of her grandmother when she is ill. Due to the absence of her mother during her childhood years, she tries to be there for Rose as much as possible but is pushed away. An-mei believes she has nengkin, the

Sunday, December 8, 2019

Partnership Vs Joint Venture-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Question: Prepare a Consultative report that Critically analyses: The key features of a partnership as compared to those of a joint venture Legislation applicable to both the partnership and to the joint venture The differences between the two business structures The advantage and disadvantages of each method of business organisation Answer: Introduction In Australia, there are different forms of unincorporated business structures which can be selected by the parties, in order to carry forward their business. The two key options are that of partnership and joint venture. Making the decision between which one is the most suitable for the business of the person requires a comparison to be made between the available choices and to consider the different advantages and disadvantages of the two options. In the following parts, an attempt has been made to analyse which unincorporated business structure proves best for Xiaojing, Lance and Nick, particularly with regards to their herbal product business. Partnership vs. Joint Venture A partnership is a business arrangement which takes place between two or a higher number of parties, in order to carry on business in combined manner and to share the profits and losses in an equal manner. Joint venture on the other hand, refers to the business which is formed between two or a higher number of parties, but for a limited time period or for a specified purpose. Thus, joint venture can be deemed as a partnership undertaken for a limited time period or for undertaking only a particular task. This makes the ambit of partnership quite larger than that of a joint venture. A joint venture is formed where two different firms come together to run a common business for a limited time period; whereas a partnership is formed for carrying unified business as a going concern by different partners (Latimer, 2012). In Australia, each state and territory has their own partnership act, which applies over the partnerships undertaken in that jurisdiction. For instance, in the jurisdiction of New South Wales, the Partnership Act, 1892 is applicable; and for Victoria, the Partnership Act, 1958 applies (Australian Government, 2017). In Australia, a joint venture can be established in a contractual manner, as a corporate or in certain specified manners. The manner of formation of contract dictates the regulation of joint venture. When the same is formed in contractual manner, it is regulated through contract law; when it is drawn as a corporate, the Corporations Act, 2001 (Cth) applies; and depending upon the other form, the other laws apply (Handley, Knox, Davis, Caddy Zambotti, 2017). Hence, for joint ventures, there is no unified or particular law which applies, as is still present in cases of partnership, through different yet common partnership acts. In a partnership, the business of the partnership firm is carried on by the partners, whereas, in a joint venture, the business is carried on by the parties of the joint venture. A key feature of partnership firms is that minors can be partners in a partnership firm and thus, can obtain the benefits of the partnership firm. However, a minor cannot be a party to the joint venture. A partnership is formed with the aim of sustaining it for a long time and is deemed as a going concern; whereas the joint venture is made for a particular period (Gibson Fraser, 2014). The joint venture agreements usually cover a clause of the manner in which the joint venture is to be liquidated. It also provides the manner in which the profits (or losses) would be shared between the parties upon the completion of period of joint venture or upon the competition of the task for which the joint venture had been formed. So, a joint venture provides the manner of its end. The partnership on the other hand is e nded through dissolution of partnership firm, owing to the death of partners or a deadlock being the partners (Singh, 2015). It is important for a partnership to have a trade name, which is not an obligation for the joint venture. When it comes to the ascertainment of profits, the same is done in partnerships in an annual manner; and for joint ventures, it is done when the venture is ended or as per the term covered under the joint venture agreement. The valuation of the joint venture is done at its end, whilst the valuation of the partnership is done each time a new partner is added or an old partner leaves the partnership firm. It is obligatory to maintain separate books of accounts in cases of partnerships, whereas the same is not an obligation for the joint ventures. The aim of partnership is to earn profits, whereas in joint ventures, the key aim is to fulfil the venture which has been undertaken and simultaneously earn profits (Gabriel Marcus, 2010). Each form has its own advantages and disadvantages. In a partnership, the biggest drawback is that the partners have unlimited liability. This means that the partners can be made personally liable for the debts of the partnership. Apart from this, upon the death of all the partnership, the partnership comes to an end. Also, each partner is jointly and severally liable towards the partnership firm and the agency law makes the firm liable for the acts of the partners. However, there are a number of benefits of partnership in the sense that it is easy to establish and the cost of starting a partnership is very low; a higher resource availability is also attained both in financial and non financial terms, including the talent pool; there is a limit on external regulations; and the business of partners remains a private affair (Tasmania Government, 2017). A joint venture has benefits as it allows the capacity to be increased, allows new markets and distribution networks to be accessed, allows access to higher resources as two firms combine their resources; and also allows sharing risks and costs with the co-venture party. The drawbacks of joint venture include high cost of setting up; lack of clarity in responsibility; lack of proper leadership; and the lack of full interest of the parties owing to the same being carried on for a specified period (Invest Northern Ireland, 2017). Conclusion In the preceding parts, the discussion carried on highlighted the different aspects of partnership and joint venture. On the basis of the comparison carried on between the two forms, it is recommended to Xiaojing, Lance and Nick to opt for a partnership form for running their herbal product business, particularly due to the going concern status and the ease of formation of partnerships. References Australian Government. (2017). Partnership. Retrieved from: https://www.business.gov.au/info/plan-and-start/start-your-business/business-structure/business-structures-and-types/partnership Gabriel, J., Marcus, A. (2010). Financial Accounting. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. Gibson, A., Fraser, D. (2014). Business Law 2014 (8th ed.). Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia. Handley, A., Knox, M., Davis, B., Caddy, M., Zambotti, L. (2017). Joint ventures in Australia: overview. Retrieved from: https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/0-616-8149?transitionType=DefaultcontextData=(sc.Default)firstPage=truebhcp=1 Invest Northern Ireland. (2017). Joint ventures and business partnerships. Retrieved from: https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/joint-venture-benefits-and-risks Latimer, P. (2012). Australian Business Law 2012 (31st ed.). Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Singh, S. (2015). Difference Between Joint Venture and Partnership. Retrieved from: https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-joint-venture-and-partnership.html Tasmania Government. (2017). Partnership advantages and disadvantages. Retrieved from: https://www.business.tas.gov.au/starting-a-business/choosing-a-business-structure-intro/partnership-advantages-and-disadvantages

Sunday, December 1, 2019

The Physical Education Teacher’s Role free essay sample

This essay will discuss the roles of a teacher in Physical Education, how their motivational practices and teaching styles can influence lifelong participation, how the different key stages of the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE) affect the role of a teacher in their aims aim to promote health and lifelong participation, as well how government strategies have affected teacher practice. Although there is no specific for Lifelong Participation (LLP), Vanreusel (1997) suggests the basis of participation can be described as an activity that raises pulse and is enjoyable in nature. By continuing this from early childhood all the way through to adulthood and the later years of life, it establishes the lifelong link with participation in physical activity. A Physical educationalist can help promote a healthy active lifestyle and recruit people to the notion of participating for the rest of their lives by providing quality teaching and essentially through the use of motivational theory, which shall be touched upon later in the essay. We will write a custom essay sample on The Physical Education Teacher’s Role or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many people group physical activity and physical education together. Physical activity is the movement of bodily parts that result in heart rate increase and expending of energy. There are differing types of physical activity, such as low, medium and high levels of intensity. These can be further grouped in to the type, such as individual and team based or recreational and competitive (Shimon, 2011). Hilton and Bramham (2008) propose physical activity can constitute non-sporting alternatives that still provide pleasure and fitness gains, such as walking the dog or gardening. They finish with the notion of sport and exercise being two ‘significant and meaningful forms of an overarching, generic concept’ (Hilton and Bramham, 2008: p167). In essence, it is a teacher’s role to maintain high levels of physical activity throughout a session, whilst also educating students through the physical. As cited in MacNamara et al. (2011) the UK Department of Education and Science pronounced in 1992 that promoting physical development and capability that ensured lifelong involvement via competitive and non-competitive physical activity was physical education’s purpose. Using the work of Shimon (2011) to help define Physical Education, he proposes by using physical activity as a process of learning, we mature the mind and body. Physical education plays a part in the holistic educational progression by aiding the development of children and adolescents in a physically active environment. Jenkinson and Benson (2009) summarises the subject of physical education, suggesting it is a tool to provide opportunities for learning of the physical and through the physical. It is also instrumental in developing domains such as psychomotor and cognitive. Shimon (2011) articulates that physical education is the only area of a school curriculum that focuses on lifelong skill acquisition and development. In addition to this, because the importance of quality instruction within the school setting has now intensified, the occupation should not be taken lightly. It is recognised that school based physical education programmes are pathways for children to acquire knowledge to lead healthy and active lifestyles (Wuest, 2006; Gao, Lee and Harrison, 2008). Teachers have a mandatory two hours a week of physical education that is expected to be high in quality. This can be achieved by engaging students’ personal emotions, resulting in intrinsic motivation to absorb knowledge and thrive in the learning environment. By providing a positive environment, it impacts on student’s motivation to continue involvement with sport and physical activity. NCPE The introduction of the National Curriculum for Physical Education in 1992 is seem as the biggest attempt of change to school based physical activity in England and Wales (Curtner-smith et al, 2001). Reasons for this relate to a shift in governmental thought in the direction they wanted physical education to head in. Previously, physical education was about improving athletic ability, a more military style approach. This meant that teachers predominantly required a good skills knowledge-base, with the primary role of helping students throw further, jump higher and run faster. A shift in focus meant teachers were being asked to develop students holistically, such as improving personal, social and communication skills (Mawer, 1993). The role of a teacher had altered due to the change in emphasis, and was now required to involve students in decision making processes, as this could help such cognitive abilities such as problem solving (Goldberger and Howarth, 1993). By helping the students appreciate the knowledge being passed on to them, it can have a positive effect regarding extra-curricular participation, potentially resulting in a festering love for sport and activity that will last a life time. Curtner-Smith et al (2001) argue that after a few years, the government intervened with the aims of the NCPE, which differed from views of the original task force and had now opted to head back towards a more performance based agenda. With another change in emphasis, confusion could be caused for teachers. Assuming teachers had made efforts to evolve their thinking and styles concurring with the new roles implemented by the original NCPE, this move could have triggered frustration for the teaching public. Despite these assumptions, data collected in two separate studies by Curtner-smith and colleagues (Curtner-Smith et al, 2001 and Curtner-Smith and Hasty, 1997) had shown the introduction of the NCPE had little or no effect on teaching behaviours. Direct styles of teaching remained common-place during the starting years of its implementation. This suggests that the sample of teachers had failed to adapt their roles for the benefit of their students. A central theme within the curriculum has been to encourage teachers to plan, deliver then evaluate sessions. This allows for critical reflection of performance. Teachers can assess what they are doing right, in terms of promoting the aims of the NCPE, and also where they are going wrong, i. e. are the students not engaging? Does the learning environment have the right ‘motivational climate’? Teaching styles Teaching styles in physical education found distinction thanks to the ‘Spectrum’ model proposed by Mosston (Mosston and Ashworth, 2002) many years ago. Mosstons Spectrum has been highly successful in underpinning the conceptualisation of teaching styles in many PE domains across the western hemisphere (Sicilia-Camacho and Brown, 2008). The ‘Spectrum’ was a timely notion as the need for a model on teaching styles was emphasized by Mawer (1993) after the inception of the newly formed NCPE in 1992. He suggested that a variety of approaches to teaching were required as teachers were now required to form professional relationships built on respect and coherence however primarily because of the terminology used in NCPE policy texts, which included â€Å"‘setting goals,’ ‘exploring and selecting outcomes,’ ‘refining’, ‘adapting’, ‘improvising’, ‘describing’, ‘comparing and contrasting’, ‘analysing’, ‘judging’ and ‘reviewing’† (p. ). With a broader scope of achievement for pupils, styles differing from those previously more reproductive in nature (teacher-centred) required evolution to a more productive in nature (learner-centred) (Curtner-Smith et al, 2001). Failure to implement such procedures could have resulted in the probable inability of a) teachers to facilitate the required learning wanted by the government, because of a more autocratic approach, where teachers would tell, shout and demand things from a student rather than ask questions regarding improvement or improvisation, and b) pupils to achieve the personal and social skills, as well as problem solving abilities proposed by following the NCPE (Mawer, 1993). Hall (2004) suggests that having a PE department geared towards the same goals and outcomes regarding the ‘Why? ’, ‘What? ’ and ‘How? of PE teaching will lead to a successful educational programme because of the understanding teachers garner for their roles. These practices form high standards of teaching and help provide year on year continuity in classrooms, sports halls and playing fields throughout many schools that have optimised these ideals. Methods of providing high quality, inspirational teaching in the physical environment consist of non-stop, challenging and enjoyable activities. Teachers who appreciate the important part they play in a child’s education can help form confidence and motivation in youths, which provides a platform for lifelong participation. If children are to reap the benefits of a healthy active lifestyle during our school years, in to the remainder of their adult life, Caune et al (2012) view it as an important factor that schools and teachers establish a lasting impression regarding the significance of lifelong participation to students. This is achieved by teachers educating and motivating students to engage in term-time physical education as well as extra-curricular activities, which can help prepare them for a life of physical activity (Corbin, 2002). Methods of further involvement for the recommendation of extra-curricular activities can be simply asking students if they are currently participating in any. Also, by researching local sports teams and opportunities to become involve in extra physical activity, a small bulleting could be produced and introduced to students, providing contact numbers or websites, thus allowing them to take responsibility of the situation regarding participation. These club links can provide greater positive exposure to sport, motivating young people to remain in physical activity after they have left school. Motivation When looking at lifelong participation, it is simple to see the underpinning philosophy of what is required from a person to participate in an activity for the duration of their life, motivation (Caune et al, 2012). Concerns have been raised over the past decade or so, regarding the low level of physical activity participated in by the younger public. As a result, the motivation of students has come to the forefront of investigative research, prompting many scholars to look at the setting of physical education (Caune et al, 2012). While Roberts (1992) offers a complex definition, suggesting that â€Å"motivation and achievement behaviour are manifestations of cognitions and thought processes within dynamic social contexts† (p. vii). A more user-friendly definition is provided by Shimmin (2011), that motivation are the feelings of want and desire that push us to act on something. By applying this to physical education, he then draws on many factors that can influence a student’s reason for participation; interest in a task, belief in own ability as well as striving to improve ability are but a few. Furthermore, the numerous identities possessed by young people indicate learning can be achieved in a variety of ways and means (MacDonald, 2002), thus requiring many different strategies to provide the environment to do so for each and every child. Learning and motivation go hand in hand. When motivation is provided by a teacher within the learning environment, it facilitates engagement. While it is impossible to make people motivated to learn, it is possible to affect the ‘motivational climate’ of a learning environment using motivational theories and strategies (Shimon, 2011). Physical educationalists should always remain enthusiastic, engaging and confident. A teacher lacking in confidence will be the demise of all thoroughly planned sessions, clearly because a student will have little or no faith in what he is being told by his teacher if they are not seen to be confident in their delivery. By assessing the situation and monitoring how your students are engaging with your lessons using a certain theory or strategy, you can plan sessions and alter feedback and body language to suit the needs of individuals, thus potentially increasing motivation. Theories can be considered as a toolbox, where by if you identify a problem, you can go back to the toolbox (theoretical framework) and provide a solution with the available tools. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is a motivational theory related to expectations, which is situation specific. When considering a task in hand, students consider confidence in their own ability before undertaking a task. Roberts (1992) speaks about adaptive and maladaptive achievement behaviours in this strand of motivational theory. When weighing one’s situation up, if they consider their ability is high enough to achieve a positive outcome, then adaptive behaviours occur. This is where individuals are fully committed, consider the task worthy of effort and will persist until completion. Maladaptive achievement behaviours occur at the opposite end of the confidence ladder. When fear of failure, due to perceived ability, is rife students usually avoid effort and perseverance. This is critiqued and applied concisely by Gao, Lee and Harrison (2008), who give key factors behind how self-efficacy is produced. They suggest the procedure is a complicated cognitive process of four key areas; past mastery experience (have I been successful with this action before? ), vicarious experience (am I as capable as the person I am seeing complete the task? ), verbal persuasion (Is the teacher breeding confidence in me? Using positive reinforcement and/or attribution theory), and somatic, emotional states (is the student feelings anxious or nervous about the situation or in the environment? ). The model combines the managements of confidence and expectations. Analysing the concluding paragraphs of Gao, Lee and Harrison (2008) I can summarise that by applying theory to practice and creating realistic yet relatively high expectancy goals for individuals can avoid creating a sense of incompetence. To differentiate for a mixed ability group, it would be sensible to have a low starting threshold, where success is guaranteed, thus giving every child positive past mastery experiences (the starting point of self-efficacy). Using a student with low ability for group demonstration can positively affect a whole class, as it breeds confidence in that individual, as well as impacting the vicarious experiences of the rest of the group. For stimulus response to be effective, praising students is not enough. It is imperative that value is added by specifically stating how they achieved success, such as â€Å"that was a good jump because your knees were bent and then you drove through your heels and fully extended your knees and hips†. By stating the positives outcomes at the start of a program which students are about to commence, it can help develop a vested interest, adding perceived value to task or outcomes. It is important to realise that motivation is borne from self-efficacy, not vice versa. Government Efforts Green (2002) infers efforts in the UK made by the government to encourage lifelong participation and promote health, the supposed main role of school based physical activity, are visible by way of policies produced from the government (see, for example, DOH, 1999; NAO, 2000). This is backed up by Flintoff’s (2003) assumptions that since the start of the 1990’s, the younger public has had an emphasis progressively placed on them regarding UK sport policy. The early 1990’s reoccurs as a turning point in the government’s emphasis towards sport in schools, with Collins and Butler (2000) proposing no real investment had been made before this time, reverberating solid policy commitments from the Labour government with both Major and Blair at the helm. Flintoff (2003) also states the reasons for this as being a rise in levels of childhood dormancy, resulting in issues such as obesity. The government further acknowledged that an interest in other activities outside of sport and physical activity are an important factor behind drop-out rates and increasing levels of inactivity (DCMS and Strategy Unit, 2002). Coupled with a shortage in international success, the government has reacted by aiming an excess of policies and initiatives geared towards young peoples and increasing their participation levels. They have also produced announcements which commonly refer to PE as vital in educating and providing prospects for young people to gain independence in activity for the rest of their lives (Harris and Penney, 2000). Houlihan (2000) argues the value of producing so many policies and initiatives, as this has led to the saturation of ‘policy space’. He suggests that public policy is now a congested field, where each member is challenging for position over implementation of future issues. Another significant implication of ‘policy space’ progressively running out, it can lead to issues of individual policies becoming inter-reliant, whereby the effects of one policy can produce implications for the functioning of other policies (Houlihan, 2000), having an adverse effect on achieving their aims, which in some cases are increasing lifelong participation. One such policy, the School Sports Co-ordinator (SSCO), was a multi-departmental design. It linked with the Government’s efforts to create combined thinking, â€Å"in this case between sport (the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, DCMS) and education (the Department of Education and Skills, DfES)† (Flintoff, 2003. p232). The purpose of the role was to create opportunities in sport, by developing links between the physical education delivered in schools and the local sports clubs belonging to the broader community. The government has made efforts to bring teachers to the forefront of developing the strategies for SSCO, which appears a sensible decision, as they are the deliverers on the front line of the initiative. If the School Sport Co-ordinator programme is to achieve the aims set out, then professionals taking the post will require adequate knowledge of young people, the different motivational practices and be able to positively change attitudes towards physical activity (Flintoff, 2003). When given greater opportunity to experience a wider range of activities during younger life, this can have a positive effect in increasing lifelong participation as I shall look at in the next section. Early learning experiences Work from Kirk (2005) debates that while early learning experiences are critical to continuing involvement in physical activity, only a select few groups of the population are exposed to quality experiences in both schools and community clubs. Those lacking exposure to such experience range from youths with a lower socioeconomic background, girls and the young disabled. In contrast to young people from a higher socioeconomic background, boys and the able bodied, the aforementioned groups miss out on quality experiences, potentially affecting introduction to a rich volume of sports and activities that could impact lifelong participation. Kirk (2005) later suggests primary schools are inadequately equipped to give children the competency, insights and inspiration to progress in to secondary schools with the ambition to be involved in sports for the rest of their lives. A lack of quality early learning experiences in primary schools leaves little chance of the specialist PE teachers in a secondary school to impact on young student’s transition of learned knowledge to adults positively. Green (2004) reiterates Kirks (2004) thoughts that the PE, School Sport and Club Links strategy (PESSCLS) strategy ultimately failed, i. e. failed to raise participation rates of youths and linking school sport to outside clubs, due to the powers that implemented the role never had a solid research base from which to create an agenda for the position. Therefore teachers in the position were never fully able to fulfil the roles that they potentially never realised they were given. Consequently, the large scale investment by the UK government only had marginal bearing. Because of this, achieving the desired outcome of impacting on the bulk of the school-age population’s, through the use of teachers in a community based role, continuity with lifelong physical activity was debatable. Fairclough, Stratton and Baldwin, 2002) It is widely believed that active participation in sports during youth is an important prerequisite for adult involvement in sports (Yang et al, 1996; Green, 2010; Vanreusel et al, 1997). A quantitative study from Scheerder et al (2006) indicated that sport experiences and social background characteristics only partially explain the sport participation behavior of adults, whereas participation during adolescence is a better predictor of adults involvement in sports than educational level or arental socioeconomic status In the sports socialization process. Twilight adolescent sports involvement, along with the school program in which an adolescent is involved, appears to be a central role in the involvement of sport during later life. It is shown age is a significant factor of participation levels in physical activity, with national statistics suggesting there is a heavy decline when reaching the age of 45 and beyond (ONS, 1999). In spite of this, a notably active minority of over 45’s remain committed to vigorous physical activity well in to later life and for the remainder of their good health. Green (2010) suggests this can be attributed to a positive childhood participation in physical activity, usually deriving from a school’s physical education programme, and the impact of the deliverers. These past tendencies are a good evaluator of how a person will participate during later life (Roberts, 1996) Socialization Vanreusel et al (1997) offer insight to the long-term socialization process within sport, suggesting it is an on-going and complex process. Yang et al (1996) cites school as early starting point for this process, acknowledging the evolution, leaning and ingestion of skills, values, norms, self-perceptions, identities and roles. This suggests that primary school teachers, who are not specially trained for delivering physical education as a subject, will be a catalyst for the levels of activity or inactivity of their students. It can be argued that involvement in sport is not just a starting point of sport socialization but can be considered a by-product of it. Longitudinal studies (Vanreusel et al. 1997, Yang et al, 1996) have shown that strong links exist regarding the amount of physical activity during childhood and early teen years directly correlate with levels of physical activity in to adulthood. They also propose that the definitive years, that impact the sport socialization process, are the late adolescent years (16-19). This data then shifts the emphasis towards the importance of secondary school PE teachers, who are directly trained to deliver the subject of physical education, and the important role they play in the lifelong participation of the students they engage with on a weekly basis for a substantial amount of time, usually 5 years. Patters of inactivity are formed in this period that follow people throughout the rest of their lives (Vanreusel et al, 1997). Seefeld, Malina and Clark (2002) propose that ersisting with the extensive socialization process that ensues when involved with sport and physical activity during childhood and adolescence can be credited towards adult participation. They also discuss that persistence should not be on a sole of few activities, but a wide range of activities. It is the richness of early learner’s sport socialization that is important. This array allows a young person to experience many different actions and environments, usually provided by the PE teacher, which permits choice. This is where it becomes the teacher’s responsibility to provide exposure to many different sports. Although the NCPE provides guidelines on what should be taught, competent teachers are in a position and should possess the ability to differentiate activities and relate obscurer sports to more mainstream ones (Bocarra et al, 2008). The transition between adolescence and adulthood is a predominantly decisive time in relation to lasting participation. Roberts and Brodie (1992) support this with claims that as we reach adolescents and progress through to adulthood, lifestyles lean towards a reduced number of favoured pastimes that have been retained, increasing pressures on teachers to be a catalyst for lifelong participation. Conclusion After discussing at length the roles a physical education teacher plays in promoting lifelong participation and active lifestyles, as well as factors affecting their potential to do so, I can conclude that PE teachers play an extremely critical part in the facilitation of lifelong participation. There have been disputes over the effectiveness of physical educationalists in the UK regarding the success of promoting lifelong participation. Kirk (2002) claims very little evidence exists suggesting lifelong participation has been promoted during the time in which a national curriculum has been provided. Further to this, Kirk (2002), cited in Green, Smith and Roberts (2005), places blame towards a lack of similarity regarding the predominantly sports orientated physical education programmes and the lifestyle activities of adults. This is contended by Green, Smith and Roberts (2005) who say it is apparent in nature that sport and physical activity is engrained in present-day youth culture, citing the use of physical education programmes and the range of activity provided by the teachers that have developed comprehensive sporting repertoires and how this as helps promote healthy lifestyles. As touched upon earlier, motivation is another important subject, as it forms the basis behind all actions and desires that consistently appear in somebodies life. I have cited the motivational theory of self-efficacy as an ideal framework in which to build upon. By positively impacting the self-efficacy of a student, via the four components I mentioned earlier (past mastery, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and emotions), it can develop the intrinsic motivation required for prolonged engagement. Despite all the other sections of this essay I have critiqued towards the role a physical education teachers plays in promoting lifelong participation and an active lifestyle, I place motivation at the top of the totem when analysis the factors towards lifelong participation.